Theories of Human Development

Cards

theory is nothing more than a set of concepts and propositions that a scientist believes to be true about a specific area of investigation.
parsimonious Ideally, it should be concise, or parsimonious , and yet be able to explain a broad range of phenomena. A theory with few principles that accounts for a large number of empirical observations is far more useful than a theory that requires many more principles and assumptions to explain the same number of observations.
falsifiable falsifiable —that is, capable of making explicit predictions about future events so that the theory can be supported or disconfirmed.
heuristic heuristic —meaning that they build on existing knowledge by continuing to generate testable hypotheses that can lead to a much richer understanding of the phenomena of interest
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) He challenged prevailing notions about human nature by proposing that we are driven by motives and conflicts of which we are largely unaware and that our personalities are shaped by our early life experiences.
id and ego id-psychoanalytic term for the inborn component of the personality that is driven by the instincts. EGO- psychoanalytic term for the rational component of the personality.
Eric Erikson's psychosocial theory -concentrating less on the sex instinct; -concentrating more on sociocultural determinants of development; and -arguing that people progress through a series of eight psychosocial conflicts. * The conflicts begin with “trust versus mistrust” in infancy and conclude with “integrity versus despair” in old age. * Each conflict must be resolved in favor of the positive trait (trust, for example) for healthy development.
superego psychoanalytic term for the component of the personality that consists of one's internalized moral standards.
The learning viewpoint, or behaviorism The learning viewpoint, or behaviorism, originated with John B. Watson: * viewed infants as tabulae rasae who develop habits from learning experiences; * viewed development as a continuous process; and * viewed the environment as responsible for the direction of individuals' development.
operant learning theory B. F. Skinner proposed operant learning theory: * claimed that development reflects the operant conditioning of children who are passively shaped by the reinforcers and punishments that accompany their behaviors.
social cognitive theory Albert Bandura proposed social cognitive theory: * viewed children as active information processors; * viewed observational learning as the source of children's learning; * rejected Watson's environmental determinism; and * proposed reciprocal determinism, in which children have a hand in creating the environments that influence their development.
The Ecological Systems Viewpoint Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed the ecological systems theory: * views development as the product of transactions between an ever-changing person and an ever-changing environment. * Bronfenbrenner proposes that the natural environment actually consists of interacting contexts or systems: o microsystem o mesosystem o exosystem o macrosystem o chronosystem * This detailed analysis of person–environment interactions has stimulated many new interpretations of development.
psychosocial theory Erikson believed that people face eight major crises, which he labeled psychosocial stages, during the course of their lives. Each crisis emerges at a distinct time dictated by biological maturation and the social demands that developing people experience at particular points in life. Each crisis must be resolved successfully to prepare for a satisfactory resolution of the next life crisis.
Behaviorism conclusions about development should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unconscious motives or cognitive processes that are unobservable. Watson believed that well-learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses (called habits ) are the building blocks of development.
Behaviorism/development development is viewed as a continuous process of behavioral change that is shaped by a person's unique environment and may differ dramatically from person to person.
Skinner's Operant Learning Theory Skinner argued that both animals and humans repeat acts that lead to favorable outcomes and suppress those that lead to unfavorable outcomes.
operant the initially voluntary act that becomes more or less probable of occurring depending on the consequence that it produces.
reinforcer any consequence of an act that increases the probability that the act will recur.
punisher any consequence of an act that suppresses that act and/or decreases the probability that it will recur.
operant learning a form of learning in which voluntary acts (or operants) become either more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce.
operant learning theory claims that development depends on external stimuli(reinforcers and punishers) rather than internal forces such as instincts, drives, or biological maturation.
observational learning learning that results from observing the behavior of others.
reciprocal determinism reciprocal determinism the notion that the flow of influence between children and their environments is a twoway street; the environment may affect the child, but the child's behavior also influences the environment.
cognitive development age-related changes that occur in mental activities such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking, and remembering.